Social Science Example

Social Science Example Social Science â€" Essay Example > FamilyFamily is the building block to forming a well-rounded society. Family is therefore, a minuscule of the community or the society (Corbett, 2004, p. 1). Family is an institution that an individual first interacts with others other than him or herself and one learns to think, relate, value and respond to what is happening around them. Traditionally and partly in modern society, the family is the means to procreation, companionship and a place that offers safety and security from the harsh external environment (Smith Young, 1998, p. 39). Although the role the family plays has rapidly changed over the years, the family remains a fundamental aspect in human society. The family is the first learning ground where individuals acquire their personality, identity, value system, perceptions, character, conduct and behavior and it is where ideals such as patience, kindness, love, honesty, self-confidence, trust, understanding, compromise, self-control, respect and self-efficacy are, ac quired (Goodwin, 1999, p. 87). Similarly, from the family individuals acquire negative values such as egocentrism, mistrust, lying, cruelty, violence, and lack of remorsefulness, selfishness, low self â€"esteem, low self-confidence and low self-efficacy. The family forms a foundation in which the past, present and future of a nation is, based on (Poutziouris, et al. , 2006, p. 27). Due to the fundamental role, the family has played in traditional and contemporary society, many theorists and disciplines have argued greatly on what the definition of a family is (Corbett, 2004, p. 1). According to UK’s definition, a family is ‘a married heterosexual couple and their children’. The report will therefore, analyze how social scientists have challenged this kind of conventional definition of the UK family using an interdisciplinary approach by drawing on three social science disciplines. Social science disciplinesThe interdisciplinary approach used in this analysis will draw on anth ropology, psychology and sociology disciplines. Anthropology can be, defined as the science of the entirety of the human survival, psychology is the science of analyzing human actions, behavior and psychological processes that helps explain why people think, behave, perceive and react the way they do and sociology is the science of assessing and analyzing the society and understanding the human social deeds. The main reason for selecting these three disciplines is the important role they play in helping analyze social systems, social structures and interrelationships among individuals be it in personal or business environments. Challenging the conventional UK’s definition of familyThe family allows continuity of human race. Through choice, the definition of family has evolved to challenge the definition of the married heterosexual couple and their children sort of family (Corbett, 2004, p. 2). People are free to choose whom they marry and the family arrangements they want to eng age in, since, they are not slaves to traditions. With shifting ideals, people are more likely to define families based on what they perceive to be valuable to them and discard anything contrary to that (Mitchell, 2006, p. 81). This is, based on sociological theory that states that the actions and conduct of people are, founded on choice. It is important to note that, the reasons why people marry have contributed to the varied definition of families. The structure of a family can be, defined based on the reason why an individual gets into one in the first place (Haviland, 2009, p. 240). For instance, a couple may start a family for economic reasons and may therefore delay or decide not to have children, in their own eyes they are a complete family, since they provide each other with companionship, intimacy and all the other elements accessible by the married heterosexual couple and their children sort of family (Robert Amy, 2008, p. 83). According to sociologists Giddens, contemp orary couples form families for love and late modern couples form families because they want to and therefore, for the latter, if the couple no longer feels they want to, they quit, seek and form new families. Sociologists define family as a unit of married couple with a child (Keilman, 2003, p. 12).

When to Use Whom vs. Who

Knowing when to use whom versus who can be difficult for even the most careful writers and speakers. Many writers and grammarians hope the day comes when whom is cast aside and designated by dictionaries as archaic. Indeed, Paul Brians, a professor in the Department of English at Washington State University, says, Whom has been dying an agonizing death for decades. Until the last nail is placed in the coffin, however, it will be helpful to learn when to use whom versus who in various circumstances. How and When to Use Whom Put simply, use whom—which is a pronoun—when it is the object of a sentence. If you can replace the word with her, him, or them for example, use whom. Youll know when to use whom if the pronoun is used in the objective case, or action is being done to the pronoun. Take the sentence: Whom  do you believe? The sentence may sound pretentious, even snobbish. But it is correct because whom is the subject of the infinitive to, as well as the object of the sentence as a whole. Turn the sentence around so that the object is at the end: You were talking to whom? When you replace whom with him, it becomes even clearer: You were talking to him.Were you talking to him? When to Use Who If whom is used for the objective case, who is used for the subjective case—when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence, or the person creating the action. Take the sentence: Who is at the door? The pronoun who is the subject of the sentence. Check this by replacing who with a subjective pronoun, swapping in she or he for who, as in: She is at the door.He is at the door. Who is always used as the subject of a sentence or clause, and whom is always used as an object. Examples In the following sentences, who is correctly used in the subjective case. You can check this by replacing the pronoun who with another subjective pronoun, such as she, he, or you, for example: Who is coming to dinner? (He is coming to dinner?)Who was that masked man? (He was that masked man? or He was the masked man.)Sally is the woman who got the job. (She got the job.) As previously noted, youll know when to use whom if the pronoun is used in the objective case, or action is being done to the pronoun, as in: To Whom It May Concern. (It may concern him.)I dont know from whom the love letter came. (The love letter came from him.)They fought over whom? (They fought over him? or They fought over them?)After whom do I enter the stage? (I enter the stage after him.)Whom did you recommend for the job? (I recommended him for the job.)For Whom the Bell Tolls (The title of this famous Ernest Hemingway novel is saying, The Bell Rings for Him.) Some of these sentences may sound odd, and this is why the word whom will probably disappear from the English language one day. As used in these examples, whom sounds a little awkward, even when its technically correct. How to Remember the Difference The key to understanding when to use whom or who is knowing the difference between  subjective  and  objective  case. Once you can easily identify the subject and the object of a sentence or clause, you will be able to figure out the correct usage of who and whom. For instance, if you want to decide which is correct in this sentence: Who/Whom should I consider as a college recommendation? Rearrange the sentence so that it will make sense using him or he. Youll come up with the following choices: I should consider him for the college recommendation.I should consider he for the college recommendation. The pronoun him is clearly better. Therefore, the correct word in the sentence above will be whom. Remember this simple trick, and youll always know when to use whom and when to use who.

Faith and Religion in Jane Eyre by Charlote Brontë Essay...

â€Å"I sincerely, deeply, fervently long to do what is right; and only that† (426). Throughout Jane Eyre, the characters struggle to live out and develop their faiths, according both to God’s will and their own. In Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre, faith and religion are displayed in different forms through the characters of Helen Burns, St. John, and Jane Eyre. Faith in Christ is the stronghold for Helen Burns. She considers living to the glory of God the purpose of her life. Her troubles and sorrows do not sway her faith, for she declares it her â€Å"duty to bear it† (56). For Helen, living a fruitful life means imitating the character of Christ. When Jane inquires why she allows her superiors to treat her unjustly, Helen first replies that Christ†¦show more content†¦Faith and religion rests in the core of Jane’s character and actions, but also causes tension with her independence. At Lowood, she struggles to reconcile her desire to rebel against oppression and injustice with the words of Helen saying to submit like Christ. She chooses to submit, experiencing an â€Å"extraordinary sensation†, feeling â€Å"as if she was a martyr† (67). Through her submissions, she learns to be virtuous. This virtue is challenged when she must choose either to be Rochester’s mistress, or to forsake the man she loves, jeopardizing her happiness. Abiding by God’s law, she leaves, believing that â€Å"God directed [her] to a correct choice† (366). Jane faces her fiercest tension when she faces St. John’s proposal to marry him and become a missionary’s wife. She desires to continue in God’s will, telling St. John that â€Å"I will give my heart to God†, but knows that marrying him goes against her every desire. She wishes to be free from St. John; she desires her independence. She nearly submits, were she â€Å"but convinced that it is God’s will† that she marry St. John (426). She prays for Heaven to â€Å"show [her] the path† (426). Jane truly seeks God’s will, and in return, â€Å"seemed to penetrate very near a Mighty Spirit† (427). Her devotion to God is rewarded as she prays in her â€Å"different way to St. John’s† (427). God releases Jane from a life married to St. John and allows her to return to Rochester and become his wife. Jane’s faith in God allows her to make virtuous

Martin Luther Kings Usage of Ethos Pathos Mythos and...

Martin Luther Kings Usage of Ethos Pathos Mythos and Logos On August 28, 1963 more than 250,000 civil-rights supporters attended the March on Washington. Addressing the protesters from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech. Profoundly, he proclaimed for a free nation of equality where all race would join together in the effort to achieve common ground. King stated his yearning for all colors to unite and be judged by character, not by race. African Americans would not be satisfied until their desire for freedom from persecution, bitterness, and hatred prevailed. Not only were the points in his speech powerful, but also the delivery he gave was so persuading and real†¦show more content†¦King did not want African Americans to express a feeling of hatred toward all white people. He made an excellent point when mentioning, #8230;not lead us to distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny#8230; By presenting this point in his speech Martin Luther King made known to everyone that he is a man of great character and honor. Another style King presented quite well was ethos, which is his credibility on his speech. Of course he portrayed this effectively because he himself is an African American, and he knows exactly what kind of segregation and discrimination his black brothers are experiencing. King gives an example by saying, We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities#8230;as long as the Negros basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. He goes on to say, Some of you have come fresh from narrow cells#8230;from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. Not a day would go by that somewhere a black person was treated unequally because of the color of his skin. Martin Luther King addressed to the people such real

Different Types Of Media Like Newspaper-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: What Is The Different Types Of Media Like Newspaper? Answer: Introducation It is well established that different types of media like newspaper, tv news and internet have significant impact on the health outcome of the Australian people. Healthcare professionals are aware of this fact that people are sensitive to media reports and make their perceptions about the health based on the media coverage. Media has substantial power to set agendas, frame stories and influence the public. Hence, healthcare professionals are considering these facts while providing healthcare service to the people. Healthcare professionals have challenging task to convince people to focus on healthy aspects of media reports and to ignore unhealthy aspects of media reports. Swine influenza (H1N1) pandemic is the recent example of media reports which creates havoc in the public. Reports of this pandemic could have been presented in more ways incorporating preliminary preventive measures. Public would have adopted these preventive measures more rapidly if it would have been displayed in the mass media. It is difficult for the healthcare professionals to communicate this message to everyone. Different types of media are being followed by Australian people. These include free-to-air television, newspapers, radio and social media. Older people are more inclined towards free-to-air television, radio and newspapers, while younger generation is more inclined towards social media as compared to other three medias. It is estimated that approximately 90 %, 70 %, 60 % and 75 % younger people below 40 age are following free-to-air, radio, newspaper and social media respectively. Females (72 %) are more inclined towards social media as compared to the males (59 %) (Antheunis et al., 2013). Males 70 % are more inclined towards newspapers as compared to females 59 %. Males 33 % are more inclined towards tv as compared to females 22 %. People living with partner 76 % without children more prefer to read newspapers as compared to living alone 61 % or living with children 67 %. Par ents living with children (80 %) prefer to listen to radio as compared to the living alone (71 %) or living without children (73 %). People in the high socioeconomic class avail facilities of all types of media as compared to the people in the low socioeconomic class. Scholars in the high schools and the universities get benefit of all types media as compared to the average students. People with the attitude of negative thoughts and those are negligent towards health-related issues, prefer to use social media (Coiera, 2006; Moran and Keating, 2009). Presence of specific class of people in the media also has influence on that class of people in the society. In Australia, approximately 15 % older people above 65 age are there. However, presence of older people in the media is very low. 4.7 % and 6.6 % people above age 65 are present in advertisement and editorial media respectively in Australia. Hence, most of the reports related to the health issues are mainly focused on the younger generation. As a result, older people are not getting accountable benefits in terms of health issues from the Australian medias. Those people who are not constructive of their own lives cant avail benefits of media for improving their health. It has been observed that older people are not giving much attention to the media for maintaining healthy life. However, people away from their families are more reliant on the media for availing benefits for health-related issues (Wakefield et al., 2010). Focusing on specific class of people can have psychological influence on this class of people. In media, most of the reports indicate that women and older people are being victimised due to domestic and social issues. It can have psychological impact on the women and older people. Hence, it may lead to depressive state and negative attribute towards health-related issues. As a result, it is evident that women and older people happened to be sick in more numbers. Older people also complained that negative media reports are responsible for changing their perception about their health. Media reports stated that more money is necessary for the treatment of older people. Hence, these people are keeping themselves away from availing medical treatments (Delgado and Zhou, 2008; De Abreu et al., 2017). It is evident that traditional media like radio and newspaper are insufficient in providing scientifically accurate information related to the health. Few media persons and doctors also agreed that these media failed to communicate health related issues in an effective manner. Hence, it calls for research to improve applications of media in healthcare services. Most of the medias present reports of health implications, however little work has been done to improve its reach to all the people of different classes and different cultures. Most significant obstacle for the effective implementation of media in health promotion is different goals and values of journalists and healthcare professionals. Journalists and healthcare professionals have different concepts of validity, objectivity and significance. Journalists prefer to be anecdotal instead of following statistical evidence. Journalists prefer to display controversies instead of agreement. Statistical significance and agreement are having significant role in improving quality of health and positive medical reporting. Other barriers for the positive medical reporting include lack of medical training for the journalists, time constraints imposed by news production houses and commercial aspects in selecting news and stories (Snow, 2008). News reporters job is to look critically in the health issue and write a story in a balanced, factual and accurate manner. However, it would be difficult for the news reporter to understand complexity of the medical research and present it to the public in simple language which is understandable for everyone. It can lead to the miscommunication and negatively impact health of the people. These stories might exaggerate health issue, generate false hopes and unnecessary fears among the people. Reporters need to understand medical language, procedures and topics before translating this information to the public. However, it is not true to all the media houses. Few media houses, pro ducers and editors are concerned about the pubic health and assist healthcare professional and healthcare organisations in promotion of health. Media persons need to make their articles and stories interesting so that it become appealing to the general public. Media houses should avoid story form the single side. Media houses should take care that there should not be showcase of advertisements which negatively impact health of the public. Australian Division of General Practice stated that advertisement of unhealthy snacks containing high salt and sugar lead to rise in the overweigh and obese people in Australia (Marinescu and Mitu, 2016). Points need to be considered while incorporating news in print, online and tv media include novelty of the medial treatment or medical procedure to the Australia, alternative options for the treatment, evidence based validation of the treatment, benefit to risk ratio of the treatment in absolute or relative terms, cost to harm ratio of the treatment, sources of the information, and conflict of interest. Conflict of interest was the major issue during the swine flu pandemic in Australia. Few media agencies were presenting news about vaccine companies with whom they had conflict of interest instead of presenting news about companies possessing good quality vaccine. ABC news channel running science programme Catalyst. In this programme, two series were broadcasted on questioning link between the rise in cholesterol level and risk of cardiovascular diseases. As a result, there was significant fall in the use of cholesterol lowering drugs by the public. In reality, this is not the case. C holesterol lowering drugs like statins are developed after tremendous efforts by the scientific community and these medications are best in the market for lowering cholesterol. This ABC broadcast made significant negative impact on the health of many people because they chose to stay away from these medications. Same type of case happened about the media reports of hormone replacement therapy. Misleading reports by the media houses about the hormone replacement therapy lead to the dramatic fall in the use of hormonal replacement therapy by menopausal women. In few cases, health related news can increase sale of product like iodised salt. In a program, it was presented that deficiency of iodine can cause brain damage in children. As a result, people wish to provide more amount of iodine to their children. It leads to the dramatic increase in the sale of iodised salt in Australia for a specific time. Even tough, such programmes presented for one or two days, it can impact public for t he longer duration. Hence, media persons should take precautions while presenting health news because it is easy to scare people as compared to unscare them. Medical journals send their media releases about the breakthrough research in the medical filed. In such cases, media houses should not exaggerate the topic because breakthrough research needs validation. In such scenario, public should not run behind such product or discovery without proper validation. These types of exaggerated news might prove to be beneficial for the scientist, however, it might not be immediately beneficial to the public. Media houses should clearly mention these points. Australian Press Council (APC) warned against such news without scientific validation (Kline, 2006; Martinson, 2005). Media houses should validate scientific basis before presenting news related to the medical treatment. Presenting news without any proof can have negative impact on the public health. All types media can reach people with multilingual, multicultural and different socioeconomic classes. Hence, these medias should be effectively used for the health promotion of diverse cultures and socioeconomic classes. Newspaper and radio can reach to people of all the cultures and all socio-economic classes. However, television may not reach to the people with low socioeconomic background. Moreover, newspaper and radio can be accessed at any places. Hence, these media can be utilized for the health promotion for 7 days and 24 hours. Influence of media on the public can be determined by the status of the people in the society. Social media and television should be utilised in the society of high-socioeconomic class and radio and newspaper should be utilised in the society of low-socioeconomic class (Hodgetts et al., 2008). Mass media health promotion campaigns have important role in managing public health issues. It can be done by influencing public behaviour. Mass media campaigns on health issues and its causal factors for youth can prevent risky behaviour and improvement in health. Mass media messages like health impacts of alcohol dinking and risks of drinking during driving can lead to controlled drinking in youth. Showcasing detrimental effects of smoking can reduce smoking in youth and consequently prevention of smoking associated diseases (Chapman, 2007). World health organisation stated that accurate information is helpful in changing behaviour of the public. Mass media proved to be most significant station for providing accurate information to the public. According to the AMIA (Digital Industry Association of Australia) approximately % of Australian youth are using internet and social media. Hence, this mass media campaign would be helpful in improving health of the Australian youth (Ventola, 2014; Naveena, 2015). It has been observed that people of the aboriginal origin are having low life expectancy with increased rates of chronic disease like diabetes, kidney diseases and asthma. It can be well correlated with the media reports about people of aboriginal origin. According to report of Public Health Advocacy Institute Western Australia (PHAIWA), in last 10 years, 74 % of the reports related to people of aboriginal origin were negative. Only 15 % news were positive and 11 % news were neutral about Aboriginal people. Negative news broadcasted about Aboriginal people include fall in employment rate of these people, 5 times more rate of death in aboriginal youth as compared to other youth and approximately 25 % of total prisoners in Australia are Aboriginals while their population is approximately 2.5 % of the total population. Negative news also include alcohol, child abuse, petrol sniffing, violence, suicide, deaths in custody and crime. In these news, Aboriginal people were portrayed as drunk s and violent perpetrators. This lead to the development of racist attitude in the population. Racist attitude among the people have major impact on the health of the people. These types of negative news about the Aboriginal people, lead to the physical and psychological illness in these people. These news about Aboriginal people were mentioned in the print media like The West Australian, The Australian, The Sunday Times and ABC Online news service. In case of these Aboriginal people, it is not wise to give complete blame to media. These media broadcasts might be in response to the comments by the advocates. However, media could have presented these reports in a positive way which could have brought positive changes in these people. Most of the media presented only half story and didnt presented scope for the future. Journalists should mention about the life, culture and concerns of the Aboriginal people which would bring positive change in these people. Media agencies should promot e cultural diversity of the Aboriginal people (Wakefield et al., 2010).; In conclusion, media can be used as most effective channel for communicating health related issues to the public. Public health professionals should utilise social media along with traditional media because increasing number of people are moving towards social media. There should be specialist reporters for healthcare sector with sound basic technical knowledge, gatekeeping and thoughtful approach and investigative capability. Media should be used strategically for public health communications. It would be helpful in minimizing faults and maximizing benefits of media in public health communications.; References: Antheunis, M.L., Tates, K., and Nieboer, T.E. (2013). Patients' and health professionals' use of social media in health care: motives, barriers and expectations. Patient Education and Counseling, 92(3), 426-31. Chapman, S. (2007). Public health advocacy and tobacco control: making smoking history. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Coiera, E. (2006). Communication Systems in Healthcare. Clinical Biochemist Reviews, 27(2), 8998. Delgado, M., and Zhou, H. (2008). Youth-led Health Promotion in Urban Communities: A Community Capacity-enhancement. Rowman Littlefield Publishers. De Abreu, B. S., Mihailidis, P., Lee, A.Y.L., Melki, J., and McDougall, J. (2017). International Handbook of Media Literacy Education. Taylor Francis. Hodgetts, D., Chamberlain, K., Scammell, M., Karapu, R., Waimarie, N.L. (2008). Constructing health news: possibilities for a civic-oriented journalism. Health, 12, 43-66. Kline, K.N. (2006). A decade of research on health content in the media: the focus on health challenges and sociocultural context and attendant informational and ideological problems. Journal of Health Communication, 11, 43-59. Lee Ventola, C. (2014). Social Media and Health Care Professionals: Benefits, Risks, and Best Practices. Pharmacy Therapeutics, 39(7), 491-499. Marinescu, V., and Mitu, B. (2016). The Power of the Media in Health Communication. Routledge. Martinson, B.E., and Hindman, D.B. (2005). Building a health promotion agenda in local newspapers. Health Education Research, 20, 51-60. Moran, A., and Keating, C. (2009). The A to Z of Australian Radio and Television. Scarecrow Press. Naveena, N. (2015). Importance of Mass Media in Communicating Health Messages: An Analysis. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 20(2), 36-41. Snow, J. (2008). How the media are failing the health service. British Medical Journal, 337, a572. Wakefield, M. A., Loken, B., and Hornik, R. C. (2010). Use of mass media campaigns to change health behaviour. Lancet, 376(9748), 12611271.

Social Communication in Nation Building Essay Example

Social Communication in Nation Building Essay The basis of nationality is the sense of belonging to the same nation and the desire on the part of its members to live with each other at this level of community. When the political scientist wants to de fine or locate this subjective sense of community, he has used such objective criteria as common language, common history, common territory, and so forth. It is clear that ail these criteria are an expression of something more basic—shared experience. This shared experience, which may lead to the necessary mutual trust among members of a given society and to the feeling that this group as a group is different from others, contributes continuously to national unity. National unity likewise makes shared experience more possible. To determine the human and geographie frontiers of a nation the political scientist must find ways to examine this shared experience. The problems in the Tiers Monde are greater with regard to such research than they are in Europe because much of the necessary data are not available. Research at very basic levels with some new methods is necessary. Karl W. Deutsch, professor of political science at Yale University, has proposed a quantitative interdisciplinary way to examine shared experience and, indirectly, the sense of community. 1 He suggests that one measure the quantities of communications among a given people to find out how much contact they have. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Communication in Nation Building specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Communication in Nation Building specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Communication in Nation Building specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer For this one must use criteria such as flows of letters, telegrams, movement of vehicles, trains, planes, telephone calls, mass media of communication, location of markets, settlement patterns, and population movements, he says. If it is possible to examine these different forms of communication, or as many as possible of them, it is equally possible, he says, to estimate shared experience and make predictions about increases or decreases in shared experience. The first stage in this process, that of physical contact, is called mobilization. People who have intensive communications with each other are mobilized1 for shared experiences and are mobiliz-ed into a current of communications which may eventually change a physical relationship into an affective relationship. The second stage is a change in the sentiments and attitudes of the people; it is called assimilation. People find that, on the basis of shared experience, they communicate increasingly more effectively with members of a particular society than with others. In other words, when the communication habits of a population become ncreasingly standardized within a group composed of smaller groups, assimilation of the smaller groups to the larger one is occurring: If the statistical weight of standardized experience is large, and the weight of recalled information within the [smaller] group is relatively small, and the statistical weight of feedback information about the [smaller] groups peculiar responses is likewise small, then the responses of such a group woul d differ from the responses of other groups in the same situation by a converging series, until the remaining differences might fall below the threshold of political significance. This is the process of assimilation. 2 People may also find that there are advantages to be gained in belong-ing to this new community, but there may never be a conscious choice which is made. Because a study of assimilation is a study of beliefs, values and conceptions, different kinds of data are necessary. Professor Deutsch says that there are also quantifiable. According to him, the rate of assimilation depends on certain linguistic, economie, and cultural balances: similarities in linguistic habits must be balanced, for example, against differences in value, material rewards for assimilation must be balanced against rewards for non-assimilation. To measure values he says it is necessary to give psychological tests to considerable numbers of people3 and to measure rewards it is necessary, in part, to examine economie surveys to determine where people work and how much they get paid. The problems involved in using these criteria are insurmontable at present. The data for these balances are lacking, and even if one had the men, the money, the machines, and the time necessary, or as many as possible of them, it is equally possible, he says, to estimate shared experience and make predictions about increases or decreases in shared experience. The first stage in this process, that of physical contact, is called mobilization. People who have intensive communications with each other are mobilized1 for shared experiences and are mobiliz-ed into a current of communications which may eventually change a physical relationship into an affective relationship. The second stage is a change in the sentiments and attitudes of the people; it is called assimilation. People find that, on the basis of shared experience, they communicate increasingly more effectively with members of a particular society than with others. In other words, when the communication habits of a population become increasingly standardized within a group composed of smaller groups, assimilation of the smaller groups to the larger one is occurring: If the statistical weight of standardized experience is large, and the weight of recalled information within the [smaller] group is relatively small, and the statistical weight of feedback information about the [smaller] groups peculiar responses is likewise small, then the responses of such a group would differ from the responses of other groups in the same situation by a converging series, until the remaining differences might fall below the threshold of political significance. This is the process of assimilation. 2 People may also find that there are advantages to be gained in belong-ing to this new community, but there may never be a conscious choice which is made. Because a study of assimilation is a study of beliefs, values and conceptions, different kinds of data are necessar y. Professor Deutsch says that there are also quantifiable. According to him, the rate of assimilation depends on certain linguistic, economie, and cultural balances: similarities in linguistic habits must be balanced, for example, against differences in value, material rewards for assimilation must be balanced against rewards for non-assimilation. To measure values he says it is necessary to give psychological tests to considerable numbers of people3 and to measure rewards it is necessary, in part, to examine economie surveys to determine where people work and how much they get paid. 4 The problems involved in using these criteria are insurmontable at present. The data for these balances are lacking, and even if one had the men, the money, the machines, and the time necessary, villages or in the same village. These quantifiable data served as a basis for a study of mobilization. In order to validate conclusions based on the quantitative census data I took a tour of the country during which I visited every region and lived in a few selected villages for periods of three days to a week. In the course of this tour I found that one way to investigate attitudes and assimilation was by oral histories and conceptions of kinship. My use of these histories was different from that of Professor Hubert Deschamps who had made an extensive tour of the country in 1961 to collect and record oral histories as part of a large project to write the history of Gabon. 1 As an historian he was naturally interest-ed in recording the facts of the past. For me, as a political scientist, the truth was irrelevant. I was interested in history as ideology: how were present relationships between tribes justified in the history, what was the place held by neighboring tribes in a given history, how were history and conceptions of kinship infmenced by present settlement patterns. I thought that these two criteria, settlement patterns and histories, could serve as a basis for estimations of trends in assimilation and mobilization and could show the relationship between non-quantifiable attitudes and quantifiable social communications. The following are some of my findings. Mobilization Gabon may be crudely divided into three generai zones of mobilization: places where people are relatively non-mobilized, where they are partially mobilized, and where they are mobilized for intensive contact with people of different ethnie groups. I have called these zones Heartland, Contact, and National. The Heartland Zone is a group of contiguous cantons in which one ethnie group or tribe clearly predominates with at least 80% of the total population. Internai communication is fairly good and may be better than means which link the area with other parts of the country. Contact Zones are on the edges of Heartland Zones; from about 50% to 80% of the people belong to one tribe. Such zones are cantons in which people of different tribes live in adjoining villages or in the same village; or they are centers of attraction such as administrative posts and markets to which people from different Heartlands travel regularly. They are most likely along roads and rivers which provide a link between Heartland Zones. There may be more mechanical means of communication in a Contact Zone than in a Heartland. National Zones are groups of contiguous cantons and large centers of attraction in which no tribe accounts for 50% of the total population. The internai means of communication are best here: they are public, mechanical, and regular. It is usually the one place where most decisions affecting the whole country are made. A. A Heartland. The largest Heartland in Gabon is that of the Fang who account for one-third of the total population of the country. 1 The center of this Heartland orresponds with the administrative region of Woleu-Ntem in the northern half of the country along the Camerounese frontier. The region is relatively isolated from the rest of Gabon but has regular contact with Cameroun and Spanish Guinea by land and water. The only road to Libreville has been in poor condition even during the dry s eason; the rains often close the road completely. While there is regular air and telegraphie communication between Libreville and administrative centers of Woleu-Ntem, there is no regular land transportation. By contrast, fair roads extend into Cameroun and Spanish Guinea where close relatives of the Fang, the Bulu, live. Merchandise is imported along these routes while coffee and cocoa exports leave Woleu-Ntem through the Cameroun. 2 Some Fang take advantage of the road to the Cameroun to attend Camerounese technical schools and go to Camerounese hospitals (particularly a missionary-run hospital not far from the frontier). Radio Cameroun is a popular source of information and entertainment. For 14 of the 16 cantons of Woleu Ntem there is a regular service of autocars which link the administrative centers of the region. For example, two little Renault cars leave Oyem, the administrative capital, every day for each canton except that of Medouneu to the far west and Lalara to the south. There are frequent cars from Oyem or Bitam to Spanish Guinea and Cameroun. Another means of internai communication has been a regional newspaper published by some Fang teachers. In 1962 it contained mainly Fang stories and essays on the true Fang custom. In spite 1. For studies of the Fang see Georges Balandier, Sociologie actuelle de lAfrique Noire, Paris, 1963. P. Alexandre and J. Binet, Le Groupe dit Pahouin, Paris, 1958. James Fernandez, Redistributive Acculturation in Fang Culture, unpublished, Northwestern, 1963. 2. Neither Libreville nor Port-Gentil, which are both on the ocean, have a port which can adequately accomodate large ships. f the great preponderance of Fang in the region, it was printed in French and was issued in only 75 copies. About 55,000 out of a total adult population of 56,500, or 98% are Fang in this region. 1 In the canton of Woleu, for example, there are 5,531 Africans of whom 5,473 are Fang. Non-Fang live in well-defined quarters in the town of Oyem; most of these people are Bulu merchants from southern Cameroun or Bakota who have moved from a neighboring region to work as servants or to attend a Roman Catholic secondary school. While these foreigners move into the Woleu-Ntem, the present Fang residents are fairly stationary. The census indicates that 80% of the men between the ages of 15 and 59 were born in the place the census taker found them. However, only 12% of the women were born in the place they were counted. 2 This does not mean that many Fang have not moved outside the Woleu-Ntem for many have; it means that Fang maies, who still live in the region, have an interest in continuing to live in the village where they were born and that they find wives outside their village. Several women in each of the villages along the Guinea and Cameroun frontiers indicated that they were born in these neighboring states. Contiguous with the Woleu-Ntem are eight cantons which are an extension of the Heartland. The Fang have moved into these particul-ar cantons partly because the ways of communication exist. For example, the administrative region of Ogooue-Ivindo has three cantons adjacent to the Fang Heartland. In two of these cantons the Fang represent 80% or more of the total population and in the third they represent only 2% of the total population. The difference is that the two cantons with high Fang percentages are linked to the Woleu-Ntem by a river and a road while the other has no such link. In the sixteen cantons of Woleu-Ntem plus the eight cantons in adjacent regions which constitute the Heartland there are 70,000 Fang out of a total Fang population in Gabon of 106,000. On the basis of settlement patterns 66% of the Fang are, therefore, non-mobilized. Their contacts are almost exclusively with other Fang. Table I indicates that over half the Gabonese have no contact with people of tribes different from their own. Not ail the tribes of Gabon have Heartlands; of those who do have Heartlands 62% live in them. The total population of the country (14 and older) was approximately 285 000. 3 If the total population 1. Unless otherwise noted ail census figures refer to people 14 and older. 2. Recensement et enquete demographiques ic6o-ic6i: Resultats provisoires ensemble du Gabon, Service de Cooperation de lInstitut National de la Statistique et des Etudes economiques, Paris, 1963, p. 24. 3. Ail the calculations, unless otherwise noted, are my own; they are based

Definition and Examples of Symbolic Action

Definition and Examples of Symbolic Action A term used by 20th-century rhetorician Kenneth Burke to refer in general to systems of communication that rely on symbols. Symbolic Action According to Burke In Permanence and Change (1935), Burke distinguishes human language as symbolic action from the linguistic behaviors of nonhuman species. In Language as Symbolic Action (1966), Burke states that all language is inherently persuasive because symbolic acts do something as well as say something. Books such as Permanence and Change (1935) and Attitudes Toward History (1937) explore symbolic action in such areas as magic, ritual, history, and religion, while A Grammar of Motives (1945) and A Rhetoric of Motives work out what Burke calls the dramatistic basis of all symbolic action. (Charles L. ONeill, Kenneth Burke. Encyclopedia of the Essay, ed. by Tracy Chevalier. Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) Language and Symbolic Action Language is a species of action, symbolic actionand its nature is such that it can be used as a tool. . . .I define literature as a form of symbolic action, undertaken for its own sake.(Kenneth Burke, Language as Symbolic Action. Univ. of California Press, 1966)To comprehend symbolic action, [Kenneth] Burke dialectically compares it with practical action. The chopping down of a tree is a practical act whereas the writing about the chopping of a tree is a symbolic art. The internal reaction to a situation is an attitude, and the externalization of that attitude is a symbolic action. Symbols can be used for practical purposes or for sheer joy. For instance, we may use symbols to earn a living or because we like to exercise our ability to use them. However philosophically distinct the two are, they often overlap.(Robert L. Heath, Realism and Relativism: A Perspective on Kenneth Burke. Mercer Univ. Press, 1986)The lack of a clear definition of symbolic action in The Philosophy of Literar y Form [Kenneth Burke, 1941] is not the weakness some might imagine it to be, for the idea of symbolic action is just a beginning point. Burke is simply distinguishing between broad classes of human experience, with the intention of confining his discussion to the dimensions of action in language. Burke is more interested in how we craft language into a strategic or stylized answer (that is, in how symbolic action works) than in defining symbolic action in the first place. (Ross Wolin, The Rhetorical Imagination of Kenneth Burke. Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2001) Multiple Meanings The conclusion to be drawn from setting various definitions of symbolic action side by side is that [Kenneth] Burke does not mean the same thing every time he uses the term. . . . An examination of the many uses of the term reveals that it has three separate but interrelated meanings . . .: linguistic, representative, and purgative-redemptive. The first includes all verbal action; the second covers all acts which are representative images of the essential self; and the third includes all acts with a purgative-redemptive function. Clearly, symbolic action includes much more than poetry; and clearly, almost anything from the full range of human action could be a symbolic act in one or more of the senses given above. . . .Burkes almost dogmatic assertion that all poetic acts are always symbolic acts in all three meanings is one of the unique features of his system. His argument is that though any act may be symbolic in one or more ways, all poems are always representative, purgative-redemptive acts. This means that every poem is the true image of the self which created it, and that every poem performs a purgative-redemptive function for the self. (William H. Ruec kert, Kenneth Burke and the Drama of Human Relations, 2nd ed. Univ. of California Press, 1982)