Architecture: Classical Greek vs. Medieval Gothic

Architecture: Classical Greek vs. Medieval Gothic Wendy DeLisio HUM_266 September 24, 2012 Taniya Hossain Architecture: Classical Greek vs. Medieval Gothic Looking at the design of different structures throughout the world, one may not realize the beauty of the art in each of them or the ideals on which they were constructed. For example the classical Greek era, 480 BCE – 330 BCE that held the ideals of order, balance, and God like perfection. This type of idealist architecture is seen in the Parthenon temple built in 447-432 BCE (Ancient-Greece. rg, 2012). The temple is built in tribute for the Goddess Athena, Goddess of war and wisdom. It is a post and lintel structure with columns fashioned in Greek Doric style. There are also the beautiful cathedrals built during the Middle Ages in gothic style that give society insight into the culture of that age. The architecture of these times were heavily influenced by religion and Christianity and designed to elevate the spirit of ma n toward God (Apollo Group, Inc. , 2012).One example of this time is the architectural design is the Amiens Cathedral. Originally built in 1152 BCE but was destroyed by fire; reconstruction started in 1220 CE and was completed in 1245 CE (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 2012). In the design of this cathedral it is evident that the architect is influenced by the Christian religion, from the three archways representing the trinity and the middle archway adorned with a statue of Christ, it was built as a place of worship.These remarkable structures, each a piece of art, are both built with divine intentions, stand in stark contrast to each other, influenced by the culture of the age. Although both classic Greek and gothic architectures are built to define the ideals and beliefs of their age and have differences, the classic Greek architecture of order and balance has influenced and are used within the gothic medieval constructions. There are differenc es between the formal and stylistic characteristics of the classic Greek architecture and the gothic rchitecture of the medieval age. Classic Greek architecture is made of stone resting on stone with nothing but pressure holding them together. This is best exemplified in Greek temples, such as the Parthenon. The Parthenon is a post and lintel structure, built of lime stone and marble which were the common building materials of that age (Sporre, 2010). Using these types of materials limited the architect’s use of space. In order for the building to stand without the roof collapsing many columns were needed to hold the roof up.These columns, known as Doric columns because of their style, were made of marble and the pressure of the stone roof resting on them held them together. The Parthenon was with many beautiful states, from the metopes that are a series of carved panels forming the Doric frieze telling stories of the history and battles of the Gods, to the towering statue of the Goddess Athena for which it was built. The Parthenon and other Greek temples were meant to be revered from the outside as a center piece of the city, a monument to the Gods of that age. Gothic architecture, unlike classic Greek, used stone masonry.By using stone masonry they were able to create arches and redistributed the pressure of the stones enabling the structures to be built taller. They also created what is called a buttress and used this to hold up walls and arches as reinforcement. Gothic architecture was considered ethereal and focused on the use of space (Sporre, 2010). A beautiful example of gothic architecture was the Amiens Cathedral. Towering into the heavens, with strong arches, symmetrical lines, and ornate workmanship, this cathedral was a show piece for the city in which it was built and exuded spirituality.These cathedrals were meant to inspire one to look toward the heavens with extremely high ceilings and ornate stain glass window placed strategically towa rd the roof causes one to look upward. Like classic Greek temple, they were adorned with beautiful statues. However, the states were of the Christian Saints, and other religious symbolism. The Amiens Cathedral was meant as place to enter and worship, as were all cathedral of the medieval era. Even though there are differences between these two styles of architecture, they are a testament to evolution of how societies have grown and evolved.One can see this in the similarities of these two styles. Classic Greek architect’s used repetition in the arrangement of the columns holding up the roof of the Parthenon. Gothic architect’s used repetition in the creation of the arches on the facade of the Amiens Cathedral. The gothic cathedrals are built with order and as are the Greek temples. One can see that gothic architecture evolved out of classic Greek. The most interesting aspects of the classic Greek architecture were the way the buildings were constructed with marble ston es and no use of mortar or cement and the beautiful engravings on the metopes are mesmerizing.Gothic architecture is gorgeous. The creation of colored lighting through the placement of stained glass and the construction of the arches holds one captivated. Both styles of architecture are fascinating because of the elaborate detail and styles of construction that it took to create the beautiful structures during those eras. Even though each of these styles have their differences, clearly the classic Greek influences can be seen in the buildings of the medieval time period and in today’s architectural structures.References Ancient-Greece. org. (2012). The Parthenon. Retrieved from http://www. ancient-greece. org/architecture/parthenon. html Apollo Group, Inc. (2012). Medieval Gothic Cathedrals [Online Video]. Retrieved from https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/secure/aapd/UOPHX/HUM266/art_through_ages. html Sporre, D. J. (2010). Reality Through The Arts. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentic e Hall. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. (2012). Amiens Cathedral. Retrieved from http://whc. unesco. org/en/list/162

Paris description

Like any other day, the sun rose In Paris. It as the beginning of May, when spring blew Its last breezes and the heat of summer started to spread around. The weather could not get any better. The sky was crystal clear and It wasn't too sunny. The sun made the whole city looked Like It was covered with a thin, light and golden layer of apple dust. I could tell the weather was perfect since I could open the windows and Just leave It there. It was probably the best time In pans for traveling, when the freezing cold and the depressing rain were all gone.Like any Parisian, my morning started with a crunchy exterior and soft Interior resistant, some slices of crispy honey coated French toasts but my breakfast was definitely incomplete without a creamy cup of cappuccino. Sitting by the windows, those flowery balconies, the cobblestone road, those old black poles on the sidewalk, those classy street lamps had never seemed so real. Along the pavement, plenty of cars were parked in an organizi ng order even though the parking spaces looked a little bit too small. Excitement took over my whole body.I could not wait to jump out of the window and go on my Paris adventure but those soft noises along with such denude silence in the early morning kept pulling me back to the chair. That peaceful atmosphere absolutely gave me the definition of Zen. It was a typical Parisian Monday. Walking down the street, everyone seemed so busy. The street was crowded with people walking, bicycling, and driving their ways to work. Some stopped along the way to grab a cup of coffee. All of sudden the smell of everyday coffee wasn't the same.The warm and bittersweet aroma of roasted coffee combined with the buttery and yeasty smell of fresh baked pastries filled the air. At the corner, people walked UT of the billionaires with bags baguette and pastries on their hands. Then, an earthy scent of fresh-from-the-garden flower and a faintly sweet smell of blooming flowers gently spread around. Flower stalls with radiant and vibrant colors glowing under the early morning sun caught my eyes. Even the homeless on the street woke up and got ready for a new day. So I Joined In the flow of people and continued living my dream in Paris. Paris is oozing with art and culture.Artists were almost everywhere and love was In the air. It's not difficult to spot a Parisian cafe © on the street. The word â€Å"cafe ©Ã¢â‚¬  said It all. It's so original that there Is so equivalent for Its name In the English language. The cafe © was so adorable with round tables and flimsy chairs on a shady pavement terrace. There were dancing people on the street. People played music with accordions, cellos or even trumpets for money. A man with a beret hat would probably paint a portrait of you In no time. Souvenir stores were filled with tiny Eiffel towers, postcards and â€Å"I heart Paris† t-shirts. The crowds of people were inside the metro station.Graffiti and paintings were all over the wa ll. Unlike others unique beauty. For centuries, this city has been the laboratory for new ideas of architects and artists, which explains why Paris has bits of everything. Seeing all the historic and majestic buildings would give you a definite aspect of European architecture. Furthermore, a large number of monumental churches were built in Paris. During the French revolution, many churches were burnt down and destroyed but fortunately some of them survived and renovated. To be specific, the Notre Dame looked like a massive masterpiece. I took a closer look from the outside of the cathedral.Every detail of the carvings was so sophisticate and amazing that it left me speechless. The interior was wonderfully classy with all the colorful stained glass, the painted ceilings and everything else in that gothic treasure. If there were a medal for the best-preserved city, Paris would probably win the first place. Along the Seine River, key locks were easily found on bridges, it's considered as a symbol of love. Lovebirds were holding hands and the music were playing. The scenery would brighten your day right away. And French people were lovely as they spoke softly and the elegant gesture they made.The laughter and conversations mingled with the music melody, created a euphonious chorus of life. The highlight of the day didn't happen until sunset. It was summer so the sun didn't go down until nine. Standing from Pont Alexander Ill, the bridge that spans the Seine River, I got the perfect spot to watch twilight in Paris. As the sun began to set, a celestial glow appeared in the sky. As it went darker, the sky turned yellow, orange with a little shades of coral and magenta and the clouds looked like giant marshmallows floating in a gigantic punch bowl with layers of colors. The Eiffel tower was all lit up.The lights started to blink like the stars were playing hide and seek. Just a few moments, the city of lights was in front of me. The attractive golden lights from the Eiffel, the yellow lights from the street, everything was exquisitely amazing. Then, those shimmering lights drew itself onto the Seine River. The reflection started to vibrate like it was trying to send a message as the river flow slowly moved. I Just stood there and did nothing but stared at every centimeter of that stunning scenery. Rambling through the streets, the Paris during the day transformed itself into the Paris that took my breath away.Every corner, every avenue was Just pure magic. On the other hand, not everything about Paris is lovable. This city can get a bit touristy and crowded during summer. If you were too busy enjoying the view, you might be the victim of a pickpocket in Just a blink of an eye. Since this city attracts so many people, the lines in most places were too long and it would probably waste your time. The queue at an ice cream cart on the street took me thirty minutes but it was all worth it. I had a strawberry sorbet. It was a blast of freshness. The sorbet tasted really Juicy and deliciously tangy.It instantly melted in my mouth then a cool smooth liquid flowed down my throat as it cleared away all my feebleness in that boiling afternoon. So, as long as you are careful with your belongings and enjoy Paris to the fullest, the pickpockets and the lengthy lines would be no problems. There goes every beautiful piece of Paris that etched into my memory. As I wandered through the street of this city, splendid works of art were gently unfolding in front of me. The whole experience was priceless. I could throw in more adjectives to describe how surreal Paris was but this city would always be more than that.

The Function of the Art and Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

The Function of the Art and Design - Essay Example This includes differences in the design, function and mechanics that are related to the artwork. This paper will examine the ways in which the concept of art can alter, specifically which is based on the perspective of the spectator in relation to the elements used to create the designs. To determine the way in which spectators are able to define objectification, as well as perspectives, different artwork was slightly altered. This consisted of a chair that had one leg cut off, a second chair which had nails driven into it and a chair that was made from corrugated cardboard. The main approach was to determine how each of these objects could become a piece of art through the object and design that was used. More importantly, there was a specific understanding of how this would relate to the spectators viewpoints and how they would relate to the design which was completed by each of the chairs. The end result was called â€Å"hierarchical comfort,† which worked as a means to show how the concept of art related directly to the potential functional differences and took the concept of the objects and turned it into a philosophical approach. Using this main concept then allowed those who were looking at the artwork to be pushed into different perspectives based on their own experiences. The concept of changing the meaning of the object through function was based on creating differences through the emotions and functions which spectators would have as a response. The design consisted of objects of the chairs as well as objects that changed the function of the chair, such as nails, cardboard or the leg which was cut off. This was done specifically to build the hierarchy of the chairs and to create a specific response from those that were looking at the design.

Principles of Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Principles of Economics - Assignment Example Thus, the price of goods to be sold to them shall be cheaper. Conversely speaking, tourists are less likely to question and be discouraged by imposition of higher prices of goods since they are just visiting the college town. Thus, local residents shall be offered goods and services at lower prices as compared to visitors’ prices of similar goods. Further, locals should be the only ones aware of the pricing difference. They come very often and I am able to make relationships with them brings more revenue to the business. With my price discrimination strategy, I would not only help with the revenue of my business. More importantly, I would also make a profit and gain more customers. 2. Suppose the cable TV industry is currently unregulated. However, due to complaints from consumers that the price of cable TV is too high, the legislature is considering placing a price ceiling on cable TV below the current equilibrium price. If the government does make this price ceiling law, dia gram and explain the effects with supply and demand analysis. If the cable TV company is worried about disgruntling customers, suppose that the company may introduce a different type of programming that is cheaper for the company to provide yet is equally appealing to customers. Explain what would be the effects of this action. - Price Ceiling is actually a government-imposed limit on the price charged for a product in a particular industry. Governments usually require price ceiling to protect consumers from conditions that could make necessary commodities impossible. However, a price ceiling can cause troubles if imposed for a long period without any controlled rationing. Price ceilings can generate negative results when the correct solution would have been to increase supply. In the example given, the price ceiling has a considerable impact on the market. Cable TV Company finds that it cannot charge what it had been before the imposition of price ceiling. This may result TV Cable Company to drop out of the market. The consequence will be a reduced supply. Meanwhile, customers and/or consumers suddenly find they can now buy the product for less, so quantity demanded increases. These two events results in the quantity demanded which may exceed the quantity supplied. This may cause a shortage unless rationing or other consumption controls are imposed. 3. Consider a perfectly competitive market. Analyze and explain in detail using graphical tools to show what you expect to happen to the number of firms and firm profitability in the short run and long run a) if demand for the product falls and b) if demand for the product rises. - A perfect competitive market is filled with buyers and sellers so nothing can affect the market price. If the demand of the product falls it is tolerable because the firm does not pick the price, the firm just chooses how much to make at the given market price. The firm does not lose anything. If the demand for the product increases the n the firm benefits of course and the price is not changed. There is no need to cut the price to sell more because the firm picks the amount they are willing to sell; if the price is increased buyers will fall off. Â   4. Discuss why some long-run average cost curves are steeper on the downward side than others. Discuss fully. - Long run average cost curves show the economies and diseconomies of scale of a specific firm. So when a firm gets

Beethovens love life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Beethovens love life - Essay Example However, because Brunsvik’s mother arranged a marriage to a much older man of a higher social class, Beethoven had to suppress his feelings for her. Brunsvik felt much the same way about Beethoven, and it wasn’t until her husband died that the love affair between the two of them grew. Over the course of the next few years, Beethoven wrote many love letters for Brunsvik that professed his love for her. However, Brunsvik’s family put her under pressure to end the relationship for the simple fact that Beethoven was a commoner. If she had married Beethoven, she would have lost guardianship of her children from her first marriage. Despite this, Beethoven continued to pursue Brunsvik secretly, although this never amounted to anything. Another woman that Beethoven had strong feelings for was one of his closest friends, Therese Malfetti. It is thought that Beethoven’s famous piece Fur Elise was dedicated to her. The overriding common denominator in all of Beethoven’s relationships is that he pursued women of a much higher social class, which inevitably meant that he was unable to marry any of

Foreigner's View of the U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foreigner's View of the U.S - Essay Example From that time on, America has suffered its share of fortunes and misfortunes. Throughout the years, America has enjoyed the leadership of strong-willed and ambitious presidents who have seen to it that America grows to become politically and economically strong. In America, democracy and upholding of the constitution represent a stringent practice in order to assure America's status as respected and admired by other countries all over the world. This paper discusses the various opinions, both positive and negative, a foreigner would have on the United States’ impact on world developments. Foreigner’s positive views on the United States A foreigner will view the United States as a peace-maker and keeper, judging from the fact that being a superpower it has always tried to stop and contain regional wars and conflicts that have risen between different countries. On many occasions the United States sent peace keepers to the areas around the globe which were ablaze with atr ocious wars. It is important to note that the peace keeping missions America executed have resulted in relative peace between countries, which in turn has transformed into beneficial development of these countries (Watson 89). Particularly, a foreigner from Africa will appreciate the fact that the United States has allocated funds to facilitate the development of the third world countries struggling for better life. The U.S. has helped the third world countries in eradicating the three vices: poverty, disease and ignorance which for many years have been drawing the continent of Africa backwards. The American government gives out loans to the third world countries which are channeled to the economy for the infrastructure building and new jobs creation. The assistance from the United States in most cases is through USAIDs (Brzezinsk et al 164). A foreigner will view the United States’ policy of terrorists negotiation refusal as very instrumental in eradicating impunity and lawl essness. Since this foreigner may originate from a country in which the government does not abide fully by the rule of law, he/she comes to appreciate the policies implemented by the American government. Terrorism has been on the rise since the gunmen have been exploiting the weakness in unstable governments which are not powerful enough to resort to drastic measures against them. A country like the United States which stands firmly against terrorism is greatly appreciated by a foreigner with positive views (Watson 87). The United States has managed to sustain its population of more that 300 million people by producing its own food and at the same time export surplus. This is one of the positive views a foreigner will possess about America. Agricultural production in the United States is an undeniable success; surplus of food is regularly exported to needy countries. A foreigner will view the existence of a stable and democratic government in the United States as an inspiration for the countries with unstable or authoritarian governments around the world which strive to embrace democracy. America is staunchly focused on democracy and rule of law, which is instrumental in fostering good governance. The long history of the United States, particularly the civil war between the northerners and the southerners, helped to shape America as a democratic country (Brzezinsk et al 169). The United Stat

Uustal 1993 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Uustal 1993 - Essay Example Decision models coupled with the right moral thinking offer a useful tool for guidance for the process of value clarification. In addition, the Uustal model prevents the nurses from solely relying on their emotions and intuition for the making of any critical decision. The model outlines formal steps for the nurses to follow when they encounter an ethical dilemma (Uustal 1993). For the purpose of this paper, the Uustal model details the dilemma that I once faced concerning my civil repression after pushing a colleague off the staircases. It focuses on whether the actions may have been rational and reasonable at that particular time. The welfare of others forms a critical part of my daily activities as a nurse. In this instance, my civil detention for the purpose mental health treatment and evaluation seemed like the sole right course. On the contrary, the system does not look for the danger posed by the nurses to the people around them. By healthcare laws, it is everyone’s right to work in any of the health institutions.  I was provoked by my fellow nurse, Johnston Lambert, who I even unsuccessfully tried to warn, but he incessantly kept whispering abuses and offensive word to me. Unfortunately, I lost my temper and turned violent on his cunning nature. He kept taunting the other nurses who before my arrival had grown very scared of his antics. Utilitarianism theory state that the outcome determines whether an action is right or wrong. In accordance with this, I was boldly trying to defend my dignity and sense of self-worth. Apparently, Johnston Lambert faces a series of federal cases filed by the nurses that he had bullied and harassed. Retrospectively, the concerns raised by the senior staff indicate that there would have been another better way that the whole issues would have been. The board issued me a verbal reprimand for my actions. Consequently, I received a transfer from the nursing home to my current workplace. It

Reaction paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Reaction paper - Essay Example Some have argued, that there were already Anti-Semitic feelings in Europe long before Hitler’s Regime and the international boycott by the Jewish community served as the "the first shot fired in the Second World War" (Johnson 2001). Even though it is true that the Jewish leaders, such as Rabbi Stephen Wise of the American Jewish Congress, were urged to forego these tactics, they did not relent and continued to boycott in hopes of destroying Germany’s economy, industries, and government (Johnson 2001). Despite the boycott, violent feelings, and insults spread about the Germans, it does not justify the brutal measures Hitler and his Regime took in retaliation. The mass effort to confine them in concentration camps or ship them out to Palestine in collaboration with the Zionists was underhanded, unjust, and malicious (Johnson 2001). Boycotting, printing news paper articles, and declaring speeches against Hitler and his Regime was still nothing compared to what Hitler and h is government did to the Jews. Boycotting goods in order to deal a blow to a country’s economy hardly warrants imprisonment in gas chambers, persecution, and violence carried out against millions.

Business environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business environment - Assignment Example The purpose of these different types of organizations are: Non-profit Organization: Such organization operate to provide services to the community without working on making any profits. Their aim is to improve the community. Such organizations includes universities and charitable organizations. Governmental Organization: These organizations are owned by the government to provide benefit to the citizens in the country. Another purpose is to utilize the resources in the country for the benefit of the community. IKEA is a for-profit organization just like Tesco. IKEAs vision is to create a better everyday life for many people (IKEA, 2014). They do this by introducing a wide product range which includes all kinds of home and even office products at low affordable prices. The vision of Tesco is ‘to be the most highly valued business by: the customers we serve, the communities in which we operate, our loyal and committed colleagues and of course, our shareholders.’ (McKeown, n.d). Tesco does not specifically deal in one kind of product. Rather Tesco is more of a retail store. IKEA deals with one niche of the retail sector which is home furniture, appliances and accessories. Tesco aims to provide maximum value to its stakeholders which include customers, employees and stakeholders. This vision clearly shows Tesco as a for-profit organization. Even IKEA is a for-profit organization but it has cleverly worded its vision statement to show respect to its customer. This also shows that IKEA is highly customer centric. Organizations today have also begun to include their corporate social responsibility in their vision and mission statement. While the vision statement of IKEA is too broad, Tesco has accepted its corporate social responsibility by including the community in its vision statement. For the customers, IKEA has the objective of increasing their customer base and retaining its

Team Reflection Essay Example for Free

Team Reflection Essay Novelty products for retail sale Capital expenditure purchases of large equipment that are used for the business. Kitchen Equipment (Grill, Refrigeration, Dishwasher) Air Conditioning Unit Copy or Fax Machines Computers Weekly Topics Related to the Common Contracts This week we reviewed how the statute of frauds apply to common law Contracts that involve the sale of an interest of land Contracts that cannot be performed in under one year. Contracts to pay the debt of another (such as a loan surety) Contracts made in consideration of marriage (such as a prenuptial) We also discussed contract performance and the obligation of the parties to perform within the requirements or agreement of a contract. The parties agree on terms and perform the contractual obligations in good faith in order to complete the contract. Topics Comfortable With How the UCC Article 2 can be applied on a contract for the sale of goods between two merchants. Understanding the different types of contracts. Identifying the appropriate source of law for each contract type. The duty to mitigate, It was surprising to learn that the law imposes an obligation to take appropriate steps in order to avoid incurring damages and losses. As long as one can avoid the damages with reasonable effort, without undue risk or expense, they may not be able to sue the other party. Topics Struggled With Anticipatory Repudiation – how is the non-breaching party entitled to a remedy The IRAC method is still a topic most of us are still struggling with.

Motivation n Second Language Learning

Motivation n Second Language Learning It is natural that students achieve differently in the same class, learning from the same teacher. How students learn and why they achieve differently has been a field of interest among many scholars, especially in the field of second language (L2) learning. Many studies have been conducted about the different factors that affect learner variables, both cognitively and affectively. On a general basis, there are mainly three factors that contribute to the individual differences in L2 learning experience: learning styles, learning strategies and affective variables; Motivation being one of the most important issues in affective variables. (Ehrman et all, 2003) According to Wigfield (1994), motivation is based on how much the individual expect to succeed and their value of their success. Gardner defined motivation as the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal (learning the language) and favorable attitudes towards it. (Gardner, 1985) Although the theories and researches c oncerned on motivation have never been free from criticism, it is generally agreed that motivation have great impacts and influences on individual learners. Based on the classification of different types of motivation, this essay aims to explore how it affects a students learning experience, particularly in L2 learning. This essay also provides some suggestions on teaching which might provide help to the formation of a positive motivation. The different types of motivation Theories and models of motivation began to appear in the 1950s, when Gardner and Lambert proposed the Socio-Educational model of language learning, which contained two types of motivation: integrative and instrumental. (Gardner Lambert, 1959). Such model laid the ground work for further research, being developed by following scholars. Deci and Ryan (1985) distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations; the motivation inside and outside the individual. And based on Skehans (1989) four hypothesis, Ellis (1994) categorized four types of motivation: integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, resultative motivation and motivation as intrinsic interest. (Ellis, 1994) While Lambert described integrative orientation as a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group, (Lambert, 1974) Ellis (1994) emphasized that orientation and motivation are two concepts which need to be considered separately. While Orientation refers to the underlying reasons for studying an L2, i.e. the effort plus desire; motivation is the directed effort that learners make. (Ellis, 1994) In other words, integrative motivation is the desire for students to want to become part of a speech community, an important aspect of which is using the target language for social interaction. Immigrants are usually examples of people with high integrative motivations. Integrative motivation is normally considered oppose to instrumental motivation, and often believed to be more powerful in its effects than the latter. Gardner and Lambert studied English speakers learning French in Quebec and argued that integrative motivation led to greater suc cess in L2 learning. (Gardner and Lambert, 1959) Instrumental motivation developed from Skehans (1989) The Carrot and Stick Hypothesis, which originally implies external influences and incentives. (Ellis, 1994) Different from integrative motivation, which appears to be less achievable and requires longer time as well as effort; instrumental motivation is more centered on concrete goals such as a job, diploma, or the ability to read academic articles. This form of motivation is thought to be less likely to lead to overall success than integrative motivation, as the ultimate goal is more feasible. Rewards could also be seen as an instrumental motivation, which could aid the learning process to some extent. Gardner and MacIntyre (1991) reported a study for a vocabulary task in which the group of students who were offered awards did significantly better than the comparable group, although the positive effects decreased as soon as the reward stops. Generally, the effects of instrumental motivation tend to maintain for a shorter time per iod. Unless the individual pushes himself further by setting up new goals, the effect ends as soon as the goal is achieved. Despite the differences in integrative and instrumental motivation, some (Muchnick Wolfe, 1982) argued that it is impossible to separate the two in certain occasions, when students have strong motivations for both. (cited from Ellis, 1994) Resultative motivation is concerned with the relationship between motivation and achievement, which Ellis (1994) identified as interactive. Learners motivation is strongly affected by their achievement. Students who perform well in classrooms are more likely to gain confidence and to be more willing to participate. However, Gardner, Smythe and Clement (1979); suggested that while greater motivation and attitudes lead to better learning, the converse is not true (Cited from Ellis, 1994). But the vicious circle of low motivation = low achievement = lower motivation could always develop. (Ellis, 1994) Interest is a powerful psychology tool in receiving attention from students and urging them to make efforts. There are various ways that teachers could help students to develop their intrinsic interest motivation, such as welcoming students with a big smile, or introducing new activities into the classroom. The effects of motivation From the psychological perspective, motivation could also be categorized as positive and negative motivation. Positive motivation means an optimism and upbeat response towards the tasks being assigned to. Negative motivation implies unwillingness and is often companied with anxiety. Nearly all students will experience both positive and negative motivation in some level of their studies; therefore, it is important for them to understand that both positive and negative motivations could be helpful or harmful. Positive motivation It is generally believed that positive motivation leads to better results in the learning process. Students who enjoy learning a L2 or have a clear aim tend to work harder that those who have no interest. However, one of the limitations of the studies in motivation is that the main tool is normally questionnaires, which has questionably validity. There is always the possibility that students would write down what the teacher hopes them to, or what makes them look good, even if the questionnaire is confidential. Also, motivation is different from the actual effort that people make. A student could be highly-motivated judging from his questionnaire but might not have made any efforts in his studies. (Ellis, 1994) In terms of the learning process, motivation itself is not enough. It is just an urge which pushes the student work harder, which means nothing if not taken action. Adoring the teacher and enjoying the class does not necessarily imply that the student understood what he should have learned. Also, motivation is quite changeable; making it difficult to measure which against time and persistence. Besides, a positive attitude might lead students to be overly relaxed or improperly prepared and perform worse than they could have. There is a thin line between confident and arrogance. Negative motivation Negative motivation is normally associated with anxiety, unsatisfactory performance and low achievement. But it might not necessarily be like that for every one. Oller and Perkins suggested that negative motivation might be more powerful to some learners in motivating them to excel, which they referred to as Machiavellian Motivation. (Oller Perkins, 1978) I recall a similar situation from my own learning experience. When I was studying English in primary school, one of the strongest motivations that drove me to work harder was a Korean girl who used to make fun of me. I had the urge to show her that I was capable of learning the language. Although Machiavellian Motivation did not always work that way. I did not like my French teacher when I was studying French as a L2 in my university. But I was never intrigued by the idea of working hard and proving to her that I could manage to learn the language properly. Instead, I got trapped between Elliss vicious circle of low motivation = lo w achievement = lower motivation. (Ellis, 1994) Supposable Machiavellian Motivation is more likely to domain when the imaginary opponent is of the similar level. When the opponent is far more advanced than the learner himself, the idea to conquer would not easily arise, although there could always be exceptions. The formation of a positive motivation Although negative motivation may lead to positive results in the learning process, Machiavellian Motivation is quite risky which might not be suitable for all learners as well. It is generally more simple and beneficial to form a positive attitude when learning an L2. As Pintrich and Schunk (1996) indicated, motivation depends greatly on context, the people involved and specific circumstances. (cited from Ehrman et all, 2003) Motivation is never a fixed dimension; teachers could always help students to form positive motivations. Not all L2 learners have the opportunity to be integrated in a country where the target language is used as L1. However, there are other methods which teachers could use to help students form integrative motivation, such as introducing the culture, using authentic reading material, or asking students to watch foreign movies in the target language. One of the methods that my English teacher used when I was in primary school was asking us to write letters to our American pen pals. We were all deeply engaged in the activity and highly motivated by the desire to communicate with our friends on the other side of the world. Teachers could help their students to form instrumental motivation by setting up clear goals and aims. There could be little steps for beginners, and gradually help students to form the habit of setting up goals for themselves. Realistic and feasible short term goals are very helpful to students in finding their weakness and knowing where they want to be. Teachers could also encourage students to set up long term goals and set up study journals to record their progress. Motivation is always closely linked with performance. To avoid the vicious circle of low motivation = low achievement = lower motivation, (Ellis, 1994) it is necessary to form a positive motivation towards all learning process. In helping students to form a positive resultative motivation, teachers should always consider the difficult of tasks. Students could easily be depressed by their work and put in less effort or all effort when they have decided that it is too difficult for them. The instructions should also be clear so that they would understand what they are expected to do. The tasks should be deigned to suit the demand of the majority of the class, within their cognitive ability and slightly out of their reach so that they would make an effort to accomplish it. Also, how to give feedback and what type of feedback should be given to students is another important issue. An assignment all in red marks would easily discourage anyone. What the teachers could do, particularly for writing class is to have one focus each week such as future tense or pronouns and only look for mistakes in the specified area. The errors could be marked by letters or underlined and ask the students to correct them by himself. Teachers need to understand that errors are inevitable in the learning process and actually a sign that learning is taking place. (Broughton et all, 1980) In SLA theories, error analysis (EA) is a technique which aims to describe and explain the systematic nature of errors generated in the learners language which was established in the 1970s by Stephen Pit Corder. (Corder, 1967) The errors that people make reveal patterns of L2 language development and the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. Errors provide valuable feedback to both teachers and learners regarding learner strategies and the learning progress; help the teachers to understand the students level and reflect on their own teaching methodology. They also indicate whether the students are rea dy to further their studies. Moreover, errors provide insights into the nature of SLA process. As mentioned before, interest is a powerful tool in L2 learning. To start with, teachers should always try to create a comfortable atmosphere within the classroom. A teacher with a good personality, someone who is adored by the students could make the class much more enjoyable. To boost students interest, teachers could always being new activities into the classroom. Task based learning combined with stories and games would easily attract young learners. For more advanced learners, teachers could occasionally bring culture and drama into the classroom for a change. Also, according to a study by Bachman (1964), students are more motivated when are involved in decision-making, which lead to overall productivity. (Cited from Ellis, 1994) As indicated, students will show more interest in their studies when they feel that they have made decisions. Consequently, teachers could ask for the students opinions to decide on a particular subject for their assignments. Group work also has signifi cant values in increasing students interests, providing with the students an opportunity to interact with each other and share their opinions. Small group tasks are particularly motivating as the students know that their peers are working towards the same project. (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2001) By working cooperatively, students will be urged to perform better, being a representative of their own group. Conclusions As how motivation works and the effects of motivation differ among each individual, also being influenced by many variables, the studies regarding motivation have never been free from criticism, including its classification. However, the impact and value of motivation is generally impossible to ignore. Although both positive and negative motivation could lead to higher achievement in L2 learning, students should be encouraged to form positive motivations as it is more likely to encourage success than Machiavellian Motivation. (Oller Perkins, 1978) Motivation is not an unchangeable domain; teachers could help students form motivation in all of the four categorizes identified by Ellis: integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, resultative motivation and motivation as intrinsic interest. (Ellis, 1994) Also, it is important for students to learn to control their motivation and use it in an active way; to maintain longer motivation for greater success. (Word Count: 2310)